NEET Mock Test

PHYSICS

PHYSICS AND MEASUREMENT

Units of measurements

System of Units

S I Units, fundamental and derived units

least count, significant figures

Errors in measurements

Dimensions of Physics quantities

dimensional analysis, and its applications

KINEMATICS

Frame of reference

Motion in a straight line

Position-time graph

Speed and velocity

Uniform and non-uniform motion

Average speed and instantaneous velocity

Uniformly accelerated motion

Velocity-time, position-time graph

Relations for uniformly accelerated motion

Scalars and Vectors

Vector addition and subtraction

Scalar and vector products

Unit Vector

Resolution of a Vector

Relative Velocity

Motion in a plane

Projectile Motion

Uniform Circular Motion

LAWS OF MOTION

Force and inertia

Newton's First law of motion

Momentum

Newton's Second Law of motion

Impulses

Newton's Third Law of motion

Law of conservation of linear momentum and its applications

Equilibrium of concurrent forces

Static and Kinetic friction, laws of friction, rolling friction

Dynamics of uniform circular motion

Centripetal force and its applications

WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER

Work done by a constant force and a variable force

Kinetic and potential energies

Work-energy theorem

Power

Potential energy of spring

Conservation of mechanical energy

Conservative and non-conservative forces

Motion in a vertical circle

Elastic and inelastic collisions in one and two dimensions

ROTATIONAL MOTION

Centre of mass of a two-particle system

Centre of mass of a rigid body

Basic concepts of rotational motion

Moment of a force

Torque, angular momentum, conservation of angular momentum and its applications

Moment of inertia, radius of gyration

Values of moments of inertia for simple geometrical objects

Parallel and perpendicular axes theorems and their applications

Equilibrium of rigid bodies

Rigid body rotation and equations of rotational motion

Comparison of linear and rotational motions

GRAVITATION

Universal law of gravitation

Acceleration due to gravity and its variation with altitude and depth

Kepler's law of planetary motion

Gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential

Escape velocity

Motion of a satellite, orbital velocity, time period and energy of satellite

PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

Elastic behaviour

Stress-strain relationship

Hooke's Law

Young's modulus, bulk modulus, modulus of rigidity

Pressure due to a fluid column

Pascal's law and its applications

Effect of gravity on fluid pressure

Viscosity, Stokes' law, terminal velocity, streamline and turbulent flow, critical velocity

Bernoulli's principle and its applications

Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact, excess of pressure across a curved surface

Application of surface tension - drops, bubbles and capillary rise

Heat, temperature, thermal expansion

Specific heat capacity, calorimetry

Change of state, latent heat

Heat transfer - conduction, convection and radiation

THERMODYNAMICS

Thermal equilibrium

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

Concept of temperature

Heat, work and internal energy

First law of thermodynamics

Isothermal and adiabatic processes

Second law of thermodynamics

Reversible and irreversible processes

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Equation of state of a perfect gas

Work done on compressing a gas

Kinetic theory of gases - assumptions, concept of pressure

Kinetic interpretation of temperature

RMS speed of gas molecules

Degrees of freedom

Law of equipartition of energy and applications to specific heat capacities of gases

Mean free path

Avogadro's number

OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES

Oscillations and periodic motion

Time period, frequency, displacement as a function of time

Periodic functions

Simple harmonic motion (S.H.M) and its equation

Phase

Oscillations of a spring - restoring force and force constant

Energy in S.H.M. - Kinetic and potential energies

Simple pendulum - derivation of expression for its time period

Wave motion

Longitudinal and transverse waves, speed of travelling wave

Displacement relation for a progressive wave

Principle of superposition of waves, reflection of waves

Standing waves in strings and organ pipes, fundamental mode and harmonics

Beats

ELECTROSTATICS

Electric charges

Conservation of charge

Coulomb's law - forces between two point charges, forces between multiple charges

Superposition principle and continuous charge distribution

Electric field

Electric field due to a point charge

Electric field lines

Electric dipole

Electric field due to a dipole

Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field

Electric flux

Gauss's law and its applications

Electric potential

Potential difference

Equipotential surfaces

Electrical potential energy of a system of two point charges and of electric dipole in an electrostatic field

Conductors and insulators

Dielectrics and electric polarization

Capacitors and capacitances

Combination of capacitors in series and parallel

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between the plates

Energy stored in a capacitor

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric current

Drift velocity

Mobility and their relation with electric current

Ohm's law

Electrical resistance

V-I characteristics of ohmic and non-ohmic conductors

Electrical energy and power

Electrical resistivity and conductivity

Series and parallel combinations of resistors

Temperature dependence of resistance

Internal resistance of a cell, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in series and parallel

Kirchhoff's laws and their applications

Wheatstone bridge

Metre Bridge

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM

Biot - Savart law and its application to current carrying circular loop

Ampere's law and its applications to infinitely long current carrying straight wire and solenoid

Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic and electric fields

Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field

Force between two parallel current carrying conductors - definition of ampere

Torque experienced by a current loop in a uniform magnetic field

Moving coil galvanometer - its sensitivity and conversion to ammeter and voltmeter

Current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment

Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid, magnetic field lines

Magnetic field due to a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) along its axis and perpendicular to its axis

Torque on a magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic field

Para-, dia- and ferro-magnetic substances with examples

Effect of temperature on magnetic properties

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENTS

Electromagnetic induction

Faraday's law

Induced emf and current

Lenz's Law

Eddy currents

Self and mutual inductance

Alternating currents, peak and RMS value of alternating current/voltage

Reactance and impedance

LCR series circuit

Resonance

Power in AC circuits

Wattless current

AC generator and transformer

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Displacement current

Electromagnetic waves and their characteristics

Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, Gamma rays)

Applications of e.m. waves

OPTICS

Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror formula

Refraction of light at plane and spherical surfaces, thin lens formula and lens maker formula

Total internal reflection and its applications

Magnification

Power of a Lens

Combination of thin lenses in contact

Refraction of light through a prism

Microscope and Astronomical Telescope (reflecting and refracting) and their magnifying powers

Wave optics: wavefront and Huygens' principle

Laws of reflection and refraction using Huygens principle

Interference, Young's double-slit experiment and expression for fringe width

Coherent sources and sustained interference of light

Diffraction due to a single slit, width of central maximum

Polarization, plane-polarized light

Brewster's law, uses of plane-polarized light and Polaroid

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

Dual nature of radiation

Photoelectric effect

Hertz and Lenard's observations

Einstein's photoelectric equation

Particle nature of light

Matter waves - wave nature of particle

de Broglie relation

ATOMS AND NUCLEI

Alpha-particle scattering experiment

Rutherford's model of atom

Bohr model

Energy levels

Hydrogen spectrum

Composition and size of nucleus

Atomic masses

Mass-energy relation

Mass defect

Binding energy per nucleon and its variation with mass number

Nuclear fission and fusion

ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Semiconductors

Semiconductor diode: I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias

Diode as a rectifier

I-V characteristics of LED, photodiode, solar cell, and Zener diode

Zener diode as a voltage regulator

Logic gates (OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR)

EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS

Familiarity with the basic approach and observations of the experiments and activities

Vernier calipers - its use to measure internal and external diameter and depth of a vessel

Screw gauge - its use to determine thickness/diameter of thin sheet/wire

Simple pendulum - dissipation of energy by plotting a graph between square of amplitude and time

Metre Scale - mass of a given object by principle of moments

Young's modulus of elasticity of the material of a metallic wire

Surface tension of water by capillary rise and effect of detergents

Co-efficient of Viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring terminal velocity of a given spherical body

Speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube

Specific heat capacity of a given (i) solid and (ii) liquid by method of mixtures

Resistivity of the material of a given wire using a metre bridge

Resistance of a given wire using Ohm's law

Resistance and figure of merit of a galvanometer by half-deflection method

Focal length of: (i) Convex mirror, (ii) Concave mirror, and (iii) Convex lens, using parallax method

Plot of the angle of deviation vs angle of incidence for a triangular prism

Refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope

Characteristic curves of a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias

Characteristic curves of a Zener diode and finding reverse breakdown voltage

Identification of Diode, LED, Resistor, Capacitor from mixed collection of such items

CHEMISTRY

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY

Matter and its nature

Dalton's atomic theory

Concept of atom, molecule, element, and compound

Laws of chemical combination

Atomic and molecular masses, mole concept, molar mass, percentage composition, empirical and molecular formulae

Chemical equations and stoichiometry

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Nature of electromagnetic radiation, photoelectric effect

Spectrum of the hydrogen atom

Bohr model of a hydrogen atom - its postulates, derivation of the relations for the energy of the electron and radii of the different orbits, limitations of Bohr's model

Dual nature of matter, de Broglie's relationship

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Elementary ideas of quantum mechanics, quantum mechanical model of the atom, its important features

Concept of atomic orbitals as one-electron wave functions

Variation of Ψ and Ψ2 with r for 1s and 2s orbitals

various quantum numbers (principal, angular momentum, and magnetic quantum numbers) and their significance

shapes of s, p, and d - orbitals, electron spin and spin quantum number

Rules for filling electrons in orbitals - Aufbau principle, Pauli's exclusion principle and Hund's rule, electronic configuration of elements, extra stability of half-filled and completely filled orbitals

CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

Kossel - Lewis approach to chemical bond formation, the concept of ionic and covalent bonds

Ionic Bonding: Formation of ionic bonds, factors affecting the formation of ionic bonds; calculation of lattice enthalpy

Covalent Bonding: Concept of electronegativity, Fajan's rule, dipole moment; Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory and shapes of simple molecules

Quantum mechanical approach to covalent bonding: Valence bond theory - its important features, the concept of hybridization involving s, p, and d orbitals; Resonance

Molecular Orbital Theory - Its important features, LCAOs, types of molecular orbitals (bonding, antibonding), sigma and pi-bonds, molecular orbital electronic configurations of homonuclear diatomic molecules, the concept of bond order, bond length, and bond energy

Elementary idea of metallic bonding

Hydrogen bonding and its applications

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS

Fundamentals of thermodynamics: system and surroundings, extensive and intensive properties, state functions, types of processes

The first law of thermodynamics - concept of work, heat internal energy and enthalpy, heat capacity, molar heat capacity; Hess's law of constant heat summation; Enthalpies of bond dissociation, combustion, formation, atomization, sublimation, phase transition, hydration, ionization, and solution

The second law of thermodynamics - Spontaneity of processes; ΔS of the universe and ΔG of the system as criteria for spontaneity, ΔG° (Standard Gibbs energy change) and equilibrium constant

SOLUTIONS

Different methods for expressing the concentration of solution - molality, molarity, mole fraction, percentage (by volume and mass both)

The vapour pressure of solutions and Raoult's law - Ideal and non-ideal solutions, vapour pressure - composition, plots for ideal and non-ideal solutions

Colligative properties of dilute solutions - a relative lowering of vapour pressure, depression of freezing point, elevation of boiling point and osmotic pressure

Determination of molecular mass using colligative properties

Abnormal value of molar mass, van't Hoff factor and its significance

EQUILIBRIUM

Meaning of equilibrium, concept of dynamic equilibrium

Equilibria involving physical processes: Solid-liquid, liquid - gas and solid-gas equilibria, Henry's law, General characteristics of equilibrium involving physical processes

Equilibria involving chemical processes: Law of chemical equilibrium, equilibrium constants (Kp and Kc) and their significance, significance of ΔG and ΔG° in chemical equilibrium, factors affecting equilibrium concentration, pressure, temperature, effect of catalyst; Le Chatelier's principle

Ionic equilibrium: Weak and strong electrolytes, ionization of electrolytes, various concepts of acids and bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted - Lowry and Lewis) and their ionization, acid-base equilibria (including multistage ionization) and ionization constants, ionization of water, pH scale, common ion effect, hydrolysis of salts and pH of their solutions, solubility of sparingly soluble salts and solubility products, buffer solutions

REDOX REACTIONS AND ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Electronic concepts of oxidation and reduction, redox reactions, oxidation number, rules for assigning oxidation number, balancing of redox reactions

Electrolytic and metallic conduction, conductance in electrolytic solutions, molar conductivities and their variation with concentration: Kohlrausch's law and its applications

Electrochemical cells - Electrolytic and Galvanic cells, different types of electrodes, electrode potentials including standard electrode potential, half - cell and cell reactions, emf of a Galvanic cell and its measurement; Nernst equation and its applications to calculate emf of a cell and changes in equilibrium constant

Relation between Gibbs energy change and emf of a cell

Dry cell and lead accumulator

Fuel cells

CHEMICAL KINETICS

Rate of a chemical reaction, factors affecting the rate of reactions: concentration, temperature, pressure and catalyst

Elementary and complex reactions, order and molecularity of reactions, rate law, rate constant and its units, differential and integral forms of zero and first-order reactions, their characteristics and half-lives, effect of temperature on rate of reactions, Arrhenius theory, activation energy and its calculation

Collision theory of bimolecular gaseous reactions (no derivation)

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

Modern periodic law and present form of the periodic table

s, p, d and f block elements

Periodic trends in properties of elements - atomic and ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy, valence, oxidation states, and chemical reactivity

P- BLOCK ELEMENTS

Group -13 to Group 18 Elements

General Introduction: Electronic configuration and general trends in physical and chemical properties of elements across the periods and down the groups

Unique behaviour of the first element in each group

d - and f- BLOCK ELEMENTS

Transition Elements: General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics, general trends in properties of the first row transition elements - physical properties, ionization enthalpy, oxidation states, atomic radii, colour, catalytic behaviour, magnetic properties, complex formation, interstitial compounds, alloy formation

Preparation, properties and uses of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4

Inner Transition Elements: Lanthanoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states, and lanthanoid contraction

Actinoids - Electronic configuration and oxidation states

CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS

Introduction to coordination compounds

Werner's theory; ligands, coordination number, denticity, chelation

IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear co-ordination compounds, isomerism

Bonding, Valence bond approach and basic ideas of Crystal field theory, colour and magnetic properties

Importance of co-ordination compounds (in qualitative analysis, extraction of metals and in biological systems)

PURIFICATION AND CHARACTERISATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Purification - Crystallization, sublimation, distillation, differential extraction, chromatography - principles and their applications

Qualitative analysis - Detection of nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and halogens

Quantitative analysis (basic principles only) - Estimation of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, halogens, sulphur, phosphorus

Calculations of empirical formulae and molecular formulae

Numerical problems in organic quantitative analysis

SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Tetravalency of carbon: Shapes of simple molecules - hybridization (s and p)

Classification of organic compounds based on functional groups: and those containing halogens, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur

Homologous series

Isomerism - structural and stereoisomerism

Nomenclature (Trivial and IUPAC)

Covalent bond fission - Homolytic and heterolytic: free radicals, carbocations, and carbanions; stability of carbocations and free radicals, electrophiles, and nucleophiles

Electronic displacement in a covalent bond - Inductive effect, electromeric effect, resonance, and hyperconjugation

Common types of organic reactions - Substitution, addition, elimination, and rearrangement

HYDROCARBONS

Classification, isomerism, IUPAC nomenclature, general methods of preparation, properties, and reactions

Alkanes - Conformations: Sawhorse and Newman projections (of ethane); Mechanism of halogenation of alkanes

Alkenes - Geometrical isomerism; Mechanism of electrophilic addition: addition of hydrogen, halogens, water, hydrogen halides (Markownikoff's and peroxide effect); Ozonolysis and polymerization

Alkynes - Acidic character; Addition of hydrogen, halogens, water, and hydrogen halides; Polymerization

Aromatic hydrocarbons - Nomenclature, benzene - structure and aromaticity; Mechanism of electrophilic substitution: halogenation, nitration, Friedel - Craft's alkylation and acylation, directive influence of functional group in mono-substituted benzene

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING HALOGENS

General methods of preparation, properties, and reactions

Nature of C-X bond

Mechanisms of substitution reactions

Uses

Environmental effects of chloroform, iodoform freons, and DDT

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING OXYGEN

General methods of preparation, properties, reactions, and uses

ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS, AND ETHERS

Alcohols: Identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; mechanism of dehydration

Phenols: Acidic nature, electrophilic substitution reactions: halogenation, nitration and sulphonation, Reimer - Tiemann reaction

Ethers: Structure

Aldehyde and Ketones: Nature of carbonyl group; Nucleophilic addition to >C=O group, relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones; Important reactions such as - Nucleophilic addition reactions (addition of HCN, NH3 and its derivatives), Grignard reagent; oxidation; reduction (Wolf Kishner and Clemmensen); acidity of α-hydrogen, aldol condensation, Cannizzaro reaction, Haloform reaction, Chemical tests to distinguish between aldehydes and Ketones

Carboxylic Acids: Acidic strength and factors affecting it

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CONTAINING NITROGEN

General methods of preparation, properties, reactions, and uses

Amines: Nomenclature, classification structure, basic character, and identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines and their basic character

Diazonium Salts: Importance in synthetic organic chemistry

BIOMOLECULES

General introduction and importance of biomolecules

CARBOHYDRATES - Classification: aldoses and ketoses; monosaccharides (glucose and fructose) and constituent monosaccharides of oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose and maltose)

PROTEINS - Elementary idea of α-amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides; Proteins: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure (qualitative idea only), denaturation of proteins, enzymes

VITAMINS - Classification and functions

NUCLEIC ACIDS - Chemical constitution of DNA and RNA

Biological functions of nucleic acids

Hormones (General introduction)

PRINCIPLES RELATED TO PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY

Detection of extra elements (Nitrogen, Sulphur, halogens) in organic compounds

Detection of the following functional groups: hydroxyl (alcoholic and phenolic), carbonyl (aldehyde and ketones) carboxyl and amino groups in organic compounds

The chemistry involved in the preparation of inorganic and organic compounds

The chemistry involved in the titrimetric exercises

Chemical principles involved in the qualitative salt analysis

Chemical principles involved in various experiments and activities

BIOLOGY

Diversity in Living World

What is living?

Biodiversity

Need for classification

Taxonomy & Systematics

Concept of species and taxonomical hierarchy

Binomial nomenclature

Five kingdom classification: salient features and classification of Monera, Protista and Fungi into major groups

Lichens

Viruses and Viroids

Salient features and classification of plants into major groups-Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms

Salient features and classification of animals-nonchordate up to phyla level and chordate up to classes level

Structural Organisation in Animals and Plants

Morphology and modifications

Tissues

Anatomy and functions of different parts of flowering plants: Root, stem, leaf, inflorescence- cymose and racemose, flower, fruit and seed

Family (malvaceae, Cruciferae, leguminoceae, compositae, graminae)

Animal tissues

Morphology, anatomy and functions of different systems (digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous and reproductive) of an insect (Frog)

Cell Structure and Function

Cell theory and cell as the basic unit of life

Structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell

Plant cell and animal cell

Cell envelope, cell membrane, cell wall

Cell organelles - structure and function

Endomembrane system

Cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella, centrioles

Nucleus - nuclear membrane, chromatin, nucleolus

Chemical constituents of living cells: Biomolecules - structure and function of proteins, carbodydrates, lipids, nucleic acids

Enzymes - types, properties, enzyme action, classification and nomenclature of enzymes

Cell division: Cell cycle, mitosis, meiosis and their significance

Plant Physiology

Photosynthesis: Process, pigments, photochemical and biosynthetic phases, cyclic and non cyclic photophosphorylation, chemiosmotic hypothesis, photorespiration, C3 and C4 pathways, factors affecting photosynthesis

Respiration: Exchange of gases, cellular respiration - glycolysis, fermentation, TCA cycle and electron transport system, energy relations, respiratory quotient

Plant growth and development: Seed germination, phases of plant growth and plant growth rate, conditions of growth, differentiation, dedifferentiation and redifferentiation, sequence of developmental process in a plant cell, growth regulators

Human Physiology

Breathing and Respiration: Respiratory organs, mechanism of breathing and its regulation in humans, exchange of gases, transport of gases and regulation of respiration, respiratory volumes, disorders related to respiration

Body fluids and circulation: Composition of blood, blood groups, coagulation of blood, composition of lymph and its function, human circulatory system, cardiac cycle, ECG, double circulation, regulation of cardiac activity, disorders of circulatory system

Excretory products and their elimination: Modes of excretion, human excretory system - structure and function, urine formation, osmoregulation, regulation of kidney function, role of other organs in excretion, disorders

Locomotion and Movement: Types of movement, skeletal muscle, contractile proteins and muscle contraction, skeletal system and its functions, joints, disorders of muscular and skeletal system

Neural control and coordination: Neuron and nerves, nervous system in humans - central nervous system, peripheral nervous system and visceral nervous system, generation and conduction of nerve impulse

Chemical coordination and regulation: Endocrine glands and hormones, human endocrine system, mechanism of hormone action, role of hormones as messengers and regulators, hypo and hyperactivity and related disorders

Reproduction

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants: Flower structure, development of male and female gametophytes, pollination, pollen-pistil interaction, double fertilization, post fertilization events, apomixis and polyembryony

Human Reproduction: Male and female reproductive systems, microscopic anatomy of testis and ovary, gametogenesis, menstrual cycle, fertilisation, embryo development, pregnancy and placenta formation, parturition, lactation

Reproductive health: Need for reproductive health and prevention of STDs, birth control, contraception and MTP, amniocentesis, infertility and assisted reproductive technologies

Genetics and Evolution

Heredity and variation: Mendelian Inheritance, deviations from Mendelism, pleiotropy, polygenic inheritance, chromosome theory of inheritance, chromosomes and genes, sex determination, linkage and crossing over, sex linked inheritance, Mendelian disorders in humans, chromosomal disorders in humans

Molecular basis of Inheritance: Search for genetic material and DNA as genetic material, structure of DNA and RNA, DNA packaging, DNA replication, central dogma, transcription, genetic code, translation, gene expression and regulation, genome and human genome project, DNA finger printing

Evolution: Origin of life, biological evolution and evidences for biological evolution, Darwin's contribution, Modern Synthetic theory of Evolution, mechanism of evolution - variation and natural selection, gene flow and genetic drift, Hardy-Weinberg's principle, adaptive radiation, human evolution

Biology and Human Welfare

Health and Disease: Pathogens, parasites causing human diseases, basic concepts of immunology, cancer, HIV and AIDS

Adolescence, drug and alcohol abuse

Microbes in human welfare: In household food processing, industrial production, sewage treatment, energy generation and as biocontrol agents and biofertilizers

Biotechnology and Its Applications

Principles and process of Biotechnology: Genetic engineering

Application of Biotechnology in health and agriculture: Human insulin and vaccine production, gene therapy, genetically modified organisms - Bt crops, transgenic animals, biosafety issues, biopiracy and patents

Ecology and Environment

Organisms and environment: Population interactions, population attributes

Ecosystem: Patterns, components, productivity and decomposition, energy flow, pyramids of number, biomass, energy

Biodiversity and its conservation: Concept of biodiversity, patterns of biodiversity, importance of biodiversity, loss of biodiversity, biodiversity conservation, hotspots, endangered organisms, extinction, Red Data Book, biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries

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